In the early functioning of the electoral college, what was absent?

The early functioning of the electoral college was characterized by the absence of political parties and general campaigning. At the time, the founding fathers had envisioned a process where electors would ideally select the most qualified individuals for the presidency without the influence of structured political factions. This idea stemmed from a desire to avoid the divisiveness and potential corruption that could arise from organized political parties.

In the initial phase of the electoral college, candidates were typically nominated through informal means or by consensus rather than competing in highly organized campaigns. The concept of political parties as we know them today did not take shape until later, significantly influencing how elections and the electoral college functioned.

The other choices, such as voter participation, electoral laws, and public opinion polls, either existed in some form or developed alongside the electoral process and its evolution. Voter participation increased over time, electoral laws were gradually established to govern elections, and public opinion polling became a tool for gauging public sentiment much later in the political evolution of the United States.